by Rick O'Connor | Aug 4, 2025
As our human population grows, so grow urban and suburban areas – and our natural areas and farms are decreasing. Much of this will cause problems for us and other species on the planet as well. How do we manage this need for space?
Some cities such as Hong Kong and Tokyo have responded by building vertically. Large apartment complexes provide not only homes, by grocery stores and gyms. Most are located within walking distance from work – and if they are not close to work, they use mass transit. We see this in some cities in the American northeast as well. This is known as compact development and has been pushed by many city planners and demographers.
Heavy urban development “sprawls” away from the city in many U.S. communities. The “corridor” to work has become congested.
Photo: Rick O’Connor
However, the United States, Canada, and Australia are car dependent communities. Our car dependency began in the early 20th century when we had land to expand, gasoline was cheap, and cars actually became “part of us”. We did not just own cars we had specific cars with specific colors. They became part of our personality – and to get rid of them will be very difficult.
Some scientists and economists suggest one way to reduce car use, and the energy they require and pollution they generate, is what would be termed – user pays approach. Ideas such as taxes on gasoline have been suggested. The funds generated by such taxes could go to build bike paths and more mass transit systems. This has been tough to do in the U.S. because (a) most communities do not have an efficient mass transit system or bike paths, and (b) we do not want taxes. Other methods suggested to reduce car use include parking fees, toll roads, bridge tolls, etc.
There are some disadvantages to alternative methods of transportation. Bicycles do not protect you in bad weather, are impractical for long trips, and offer little protection in an accident. Mass transit rail systems are expensive to build and maintain, commit riders to set schedules, and are cost effective only in densely populated areas. Buses require low fares, and the bus companies lose money, can get caught in heavy traffic, and also require set schedules.
Other suggestions include better land use planning. Methods tried here include limit building permits, including green belts in community design, encouraging mixed use of homes and small businesses, and concentrating development along mass transit rail lines.
The bottom line is to concentrate humans in areas where they live close to where they work and the resources they need. Walkable cities will reduce the need for expansion into nearby land space and farms which will allow for more green spaces the ecological services they provide for our existence.
Reference
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Rick O'Connor | Jul 25, 2025
We all have our personal space, our personal bubble, where we do not like others to enter. Some have a small bubble, but others have a much larger one. This will play a part in the discussion below but the statement “we need space” initially means – we must have some place to lie our head. All creatures do. Battles between birds, bears, and berries all take place for their piece of land where they will obtain their resources and call home. And with the population growth we see in humans, we are all seeing and feeling our personal space being invaded.
Much of the land in Florida is being developed.
Photo: University of Florida
Almost everyone reading this has experienced it. Some have homes on properties that are over 100 acres. Others have a house on only one city block. Others live on a city block where there are four houses. And others live on a city block that has a high rise with 200 apartments. Everywhere crowds are increasing. There is more traffic, more homes, more malls and strip malls. We are growing very fast. I have recently seen housing developments where people moved in BEFORE the house was done. We are feeling the growth of the human population and trying to maintain our space. And… as the human population grows there is need for more space.
Between 1800 and 2008 the percentage of the U.S. population living in cities increased from 5% to 79%. It began first with people moving from farms to the major cities. Then, due to crowding and congestion, people began to move from the central cities to what were called suburbs. Since 1980 people began to move from the crowded northeastern U.S. to the south and the west. Between 2008 and 2043 demographers (scientist who study populations) project that the fastest growing U.S. states will be Nevada, Arizona, and Florida. Currently (2025) the fastest growing state is the District of Columbia, followed by Florida and Texas. The largest state at over 39 million is California – followed by Texas (over 31 million) and Florida (over 23 million). States that are currently experiencing a decline in population include New York, Illinois, Hawaii, Louisiana, Mississippi, and West Virgina. Since the 1990s people have begun to move from the suburbs back to the farm areas – but not to farm – they are developing these rural areas into housing developments. We need space.
This urban sprawl has been supported by having automobiles and low-cost gasoline – most of these people still work in the cities. It is also supported by the fact people do not want to live in high rise buildings with 200+ apartments on one city block. We want more space – our bubble is bigger. In many locations these suburb communities are beginning to merge creating megalopolis – metro areas where you cannot really tell where one town ends and the next begins. Humans are spreading across the landscape like cancer. I have flown from Pensacola to Denver many times. As you look out the window of the airplane you can witness how our species has just engulfed the landscape – everywhere.
Heavy traffic is common place in the U.S. with our dependence on cars.
Photo: Rick O’Connor
These large urban areas have created some problems for us. They require high levels of energy to operate – and they do not produce their own energy. They generate tons of solid waste – and there is nowhere to dispose of it. They require large amounts of food – and they do not grow it. They require large amounts of water – and in some cases have their own source, but in many they do not. There is a lot of air and water pollution – it was because of regions like this the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act were created. There are few green spaces, trees are removed for development. Flooding, spreading diseases, and noise pollution are all issues.
The suburbs have their own problems. Traffic is heavy, and streets are crowded. There is the need for new schools, new stores, and new office space – often in areas that do not have the infrastructure to support them.
With a growing population there is a need for more space – but it is pretty obvious that how we are doing it is not sustainable and continues to create more problems for us and the rest of the planet. In our next article we will look at how to solve some of these problems.
References
Fastest Growing States in 2025. World Population Review. https://worldpopulationreview.com/state-rankings/fastest-growing-states.
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Rick O'Connor | Jun 20, 2025
Despite the issues with modern agriculture, we still need food, and we need it for a lot of humans. So, what can be done to help improve things? Let’s look at some ideas that were suggested when I was teaching the class.
This is a common method used to irrigate crops across the U.S.
Photo: UF IFAS
Pesticides. There have been several methods employed to deal with the disadvantages of pesticides. One is legislation. In 1947 the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was passed. It was amended in 1972. This law allows the EPA, USDA, and FDA to regulate the sale and use of pesticides. In 1996 congress passed the Food Quality Protection Act. This law requires the EPA to reduce the allowed levels of pesticide residues in food by a factor of 10 when there is inadequate information on the potentially harmful effects on children. However, some studies from the National Academy of Science suggest these laws are not enforced as they should be for all pesticides. There are other methods suggested by scientists to battle crop pests.
- Fool the pests. This can be done by rotating different crops on the land each year. This helps control the population of insects that feed on specific crops and reduce their impact. Another idea is to plant crops during a time of year when the pest life cycle keeps it from being a problem, or when their predators are more abundant.
- Provide a home for pest enemies. Farmers can move from monocultured fields to polyculture fields which can decrease pest populations as well as enhance their predator’s population. This is also a method that could be used to reduce pesticides needed on homeowner lawns.
- Genetically modified plants. Though controversial, this method can produce both pest whose development is sped up, and crops that are resistant to the pest.
- Biological control. Introducing natural predators will reduce the need for pesticides all together. However, it is slow acting, not always available when needed, and can become pests themselves.
- Pheromones (sex attractants). These can be used to lure pests into traps or attract their natural predators. Pheromones are species specific so will not harm beneficial insects.
- Spraying hot water. This method has had success on cotton, alfalfa, potatoes, and citrus crops in Florida.
Many experts and farmers feel the best method to control pests is what is called the integrated pest management (IPM) plan. In this method the farmers assess their situation and then develop a plan that uses a combination of the above methods including chemicals. A study by the National Academy of Science found that using IPM methods can reduce pesticide use between 50-65% without reducing crop yield or food quality. However, there are some drawbacks. 1) it does require expert knowledge about the pest situation – here Extension can help. 2) it takes more time to be effective than pesticides. 3) no one IPM plan works for all, there could be slight differences between neighboring fields. There is also the issue of government subsides to encourage pesticide use, which has slowed this method down.
Soil. There are methods that have been used by farmers around the world to reduce soil erosion.
- Is used on land that is sloped. It helps retain water and soil from washing downhill.
- Contour farming. Is another method used on sloped land. Here the plowing goes across the landscape instead of up or down.
- Strip cropping. Is a method where one row is the row crop of interest (corn or cotton) with alternant rows of cover crops (alfalfa or clover). These cover crops help hold the soil in place and reduce water runoff.
- Alley cropping. Is a method where the crops are planted between rows of trees or shrubs – which provide some shade and reduces evaporation and helps slowly release soil moisture. The selected trees can provide fruit, and leaf litter than is used as mulch.
- Windbreaks or Shelterbelts. I see this a lot. This is a method where the larger field of crops is encircled by trees to reduce wind speed and erosion. The trees help retain moisture, provide habitat for insect predators, and can be sold as a product itself.
- No till or minimum tillage. Tilling the soil is needed but can enhance wind blown erosion. There are special tillers and planting machines that can plant seeds directly into through the crop residue into the undisturbed soil.
Years of abuse have made some soils less fertile and non-productive. There are methods being used to help restore this fertility. Some of these methods include organic fertilizers – such as animal manure and green manure. Green manure consists of using plant waste plowed into the soil. Composting is an option, as are commercial inorganic fertilizers.
Sustainable Aquaculture. Many feel with the size of the human population now wild harvest seafood cannot sustain us. Mass production of seafood – aquaculture – is the direction we should move. However, in the last article we mentioned some of the problems with aquaculture. Ways to improve this would include.
- Do not place aquaculture farms in/near environmentally sensitive systems – such as mangrove forest or salt marshes. Some aquaculture projects (oysters) can actually help enhance water quality.
- Improve management of aquaculture waste. Waste treatment facilities.
- Develop methods to reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild.
- Caged methods in existing water systems can help reduce predation and disperse waste.
Meat Production. One issue with meat production is the amount of meat we consume. Since 2011 between 30-40% of the grain grown is used to feed livestock – not humans. Miller suggests that if the world had the average U.S. meat diet, our current grain harvest would only feed about 2.5 billion people. Reducing meat in our diet would provide more grain-based foods for human consumption. They also suggest shifting from less efficient grain fed meats – beef and pork – to more grain efficient forms of meat – chicken and fish – would also improve food production in general. There are also concerns about how livestock are raised for mass production. Large, overcrowded feedlots and pens are of concern. Several major fast-food chains and grocery stores have invested in research to try and improve conditions for our livestock. I watched a cooking show hosted by an Italian women. She mentioned that they had livestock on the farm growing up. During the spring, summer, and fall they ate primarily vegetables, fruit, and non-meat pasta dishes. In the fall they would slaughter their livestock and switched to a meat diet during the winter – because that was when the meat was available. It also makes sense from a biological point of view. Your body requires higher protein-fat diets to keep warm in winter – this is not needed in the summer. Consuming more fish in summer would make sense. Many have converted to such diets and – to keep up with the growing human population – many more will need to.
References
Sloat, L., Ray, D., Gracia, A., Cassidy, E., Hanson, C. 2022. The World is Growing More Crops – But Not for Food. World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/insights/crop-expansion-food-security-trends.
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Rick O'Connor | Jun 6, 2025
Let’s begin with crops. In 2011 it was reported that 77% of the world’s food was coming from grains being grown on 11% of the worlds land. Rice, wheat, and corn were/are the big players. We mentioned in Part 8 of this series that industrial farming of these crops was putting a heavy toll on the nutrients in the soil needed to sustain the next crop. Response… commercially produced inorganic chemical fertilizers – we will make these nutrients in a factory and spread them over the fields. Massive irrigation systems were developed to water these large fields and allow us to use land that would otherwise not be able to support these crops. Commercially produced pesticides to reduce the enormous numbers of insect pests – whose populations were also increasing with the increase in food sources. Reducing pests equals higher yield. High-yield grain varieties – science had been able to develop new strains of grains that could produce quicker and even produce their own defenses against insects. But with this success there has been a cost.
This is a common method used to irrigate crops across the U.S.
Photo: UF IFAS
There was a statement in the textbook I used when I taught this class saying – “according to many analysts, agriculture has a greater harmful environmental impact than any other human activity and these environmental effects may limit future food production”. Let’s look at some of these negative impacts.
Soil. Topsoil erosion is a serious problem in many parts of the world. Naturally the overlying vegetation holds the soil, retains water, and exchanges nutrients. When the native vegetation is removed for agriculture, the soil blows/washes away, it becomes drier, and the nutrients are not replenished. In 2011 it was estimated that 33% of the world’s cropland was losing soil faster than it was being replaced. In some locations this has been so extreme that the land has actually been converted into a desert – a process called desertification. Water used in irrigation has small traces of salt. When sprayed over a field in more arid areas – it evaporates quickly leaving behind the salt, which can kill the crops – a process called salinization. In some areas the water from irrigation causes the natural water table to rise, soaking the crops and killing them – a process called waterlogging.
Genetically Modified Food. The advances in genetically modified food have had both positives and negative results. One the positive side – many of these crops do not require fertilizers – need less water – more resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought – they grow faster and at higher yields. The negatives include – irreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects to the neighboring environment – possible harmful toxins produced by mutations of these GM plants – new allergens – lower nutrition – an increase in pesticide resistant insects and weeds – and can harm beneficial insects.
Industrialized Meat Production. Advantages include – increased meat production – less land use – reduced overgrazing – and reduced soil erosion. Negatives include – large inputs of grain, water, and energy – higher greenhouse gas emissions (methane) – high concentrations of animal waste that pollutes – and antibiotics increases genetic resistance to microbes in humans.
Pesticides. Advantages include – increased food supply. Disadvantages include – promoting genetic resistance – kills beneficial insects – can harm wildlife and humans – expensive. Studies have shown that when pesticides are used about 95% of the targeted pests are killed. However, the 5% of insects who were naturally immune to the pesticide reproduce rapidly to fill the decrease in the population. Within five or so years, most of the pests are now immune to the pesticide. So, they need to “beef up the formula”. This again kills 95% of those pests. But, again, 5% are immune – and the cycle begins again, during each round the pesticides become stronger and stronger – this process is called the pesticide treadmill. And we all have heard of the DDT story. This was a “one time spray to kill all your insect pests” – and it did. The bad insects, but the good insects, birds, and many other forms of wildlife suffered from this.
Aquaculture. Many feel the future of seafood production is in “fish farming”. They do not believe that wild harvest is sustainable with the growing population. The advantages to aquaculture include – high efficiency and high yield to small volume of water used. The disadvantages would include – requires large inputs of land, feed, and water – large waste outputs – reduces natural ecosystems – uses grain to feed some species – dense populations are vulnerable to diseases.
In Part 10 we will learn about attempts to correct some of the disadvantages – we still need food.
Reference
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Laura Tiu | Jun 6, 2025
The colonial Portuguese man-of-war.
Photo: NOAA
I love summer; going to the beach, snorkeling, kayaking and grilling in the backyard. But summer comes with its own share of challenges. One of my least favorite summer guests is bugs. The list of bugs I dislike is long, but I’d like to focus on a few that like to torment us all.
Mosquitos are one of summer’s bad actors. Mosquito lay their eggs and their larvae mature in both manmade and natural water-holding containers such as bird baths, plants, bucket, used tire and holes in trees. Some mosquitos just bite while others carry disease. The easiest way to get rid of mosquitos is to get rid of any water-holding containers in the area.
Ants, in particular fire ants, are another unwelcome summer arrival. This invasive species is aggressive, and their painful stings can injure both humans and animals. Fire ant nests look like large mounds of dirt and typically have multiple openings. You must kill the queen to completely eliminate a colony. Even if the queen is killed, surviving ants may inhabit the mound or make a new mound until they die off. Some treatments that may work to get rid of these pests include baits, pesticides and boiling water.
Many biting flies, yellow flies are my least favorite, persistently attack man and animals to obtain a blood meal. Like mosquitoes, it is the female fly that is responsible for inflicting a bite. These biting flies like shady areas under bushes and trees and wait for their victim to pass by. They typically attack during daylight hours, a few hours after sunrise and two hours before sunset. Currently there are no adequate means for managing populations. Traps are sometimes effective in small areas such as yards, camping sites, and swimming pools.
In the water, jellyfish are the most common summer pest. While not bugs, their reputation for stinging people puts them in a similar category with the above-mentioned pests. Sea lice, actually the larval form of the thimble jellyfish, is a common near shore pest, while Portuguese Man-O-War and the box jellyfish can give a very painful sting. Another type, comb jellies, are not true jellyfish and do not sting. I you get stung, rinse the sting site with large amounts of household vinegar, or jelly-fish-free ocean water, for at least 30 seconds. Do not rub sand or apply any pressure to the area or scrape the sting site.
The University of Florida – IFAS has several good publications with information about these pests and more detail on how to manage them. Check out these publications if you, like me, have had your fill of summer pests.
Florida Container Mosquitos: https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN1315
Ant Control – https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/sustainable-fire-ant-control/
Yellow Flies – https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN595
Jellyfish – http://nwdistrict.ifas.ufl.edu/nat/tag/jellyfish/
by Rick O'Connor | May 12, 2025
With 8 billion humans on this planet there is a need for a lot of space and resources. In this modern world we can get lost in which resources we really NEED and those that we really WANT. We all need a space to live, but we do not necessarily need a 5000 ft2 home, with a pool and manicured lawn – those are wants. But we do need food – and lot of it.
The most popular seafood species – Shrimp.
Thousands of years ago humans fed themselves through hunting and gathering. We hunted, as many do today, for a food source but killed only what they needed – they had no means to store/preserve food in a mobile society such as they had. Groups of humans began to settle into one general location and moved towards and different lifestyle – early agriculture. They would plant seeds and keep livestock to feed on through the course of the year. Many would grow crops but continued to hunt for their meat. They developed methods of smoking and salting meat to preserve it longer. They created large bins where crops could be stored, but most were still growing and gathering the food for their families alone.
As these small sessile communities became larger (growing population) the fields became larger and fed not just their family, but all of the families. Residents would take their livestock to the community “commons” where they could graze – since space to do so at your home was not available.
Those who lived on the coast could utilize another resource – marine resources – shell and finfish as well as seaweeds. As with farming, most fishermen began by harvesting for their families, but as the population grew, they began to harvest for others. In both cases – as populations grew, the number of farmers and fishermen grew, and the space and resource needed to sustain the growing communities grew as well.
Early fishing.
Image: University of Florida
During the industrial revolution of the 19th century humans begin to develop technologies and methods that could expand farming and fishing to harvest more, more efficiently, and at a faster rate. The world was experiencing a growth in the production of all sorts of products, growth in food production increased as well. With mechanized farming and fishing, we could feed more, the human population could sustain more, and so the population grew. The exponential growth in the human population – what many refer to as the “J” curve – is closely associated with the industrial revolution – which could provide more resources to sustain this growth.
Industrial Revolution.
Image: Encyclopedia of Philadelphia.
The agriculture world began what has been called the “green revolution”. Large expansive fields, growing large amounts of crops, utilizing new machines that could keep up the work. Rice and wheat were staples – grown all over the world. Corn followed. Large expanses in land were cleared to grow these crops as well as graze cattle to help with the demand for meat. Large farms needed mechanized equipment to harvest, process, and transport these food products to markets far away from the farms themselves. Commercial fishing fleets were provided technologies that aided them with locating their target species faster, removing large amounts of fish into larger vessels quicker, and keeping them cold longer at sea to increase harvest yield. They too would need processing plants and transportation to get their products to markets far away from the sea.
Tractors planting rows of eucalyptus trees. Biomass crops, biofuel, sustainability. UF/IFAS Photo by Tyler Jones.
We began a system to feed a growing human population, and we were very successful. And as the human population continued to grow, the need for better technologies was needed – and delivered. According to the textbook I used when I was teaching this course, we were producing enough food to feed the human population, but there were three problems… (1) we were removing these resources faster than they could replace themselves. (2) when you consume resources you produce waste – this is true even in photosynthesis. As we produced more food, we were also producing more waste. And (3) one in every six people in the developing countries were still not getting enough to eat.
With agriculture they had moved to large area farms where they could plant large numbers of crops, which were harvested as frequently as possible. The stress on the soil became a problem by removing the nutrients at faster rates than mother nature could replace them. To add to the problem most fields grew the same crops, thus removing specific nutrients at a faster rate – compounding the problem. Farmers were literally working the fields to death.
Livestock moved to larger factory farms with large processing plants for larger numbers of cattle, chicken, and pigs. There was not enough space to free range cattle as they had done prior to the green revolution. So, now they were commercially fed, and this could be done in a smaller space with large numbers of animals in such. Crowding creatures like this can enhance the spread of disease and produces large amounts of waste that must be managed.
In the commercial fishing world, they were removing fish faster than nature could replace them. Many fishing grounds went “silent” as the fish populations declined forcing fleets to find new waters or new target species to harvest. We began to overfish the oceans.
Purse seining in the Pacific Ocean.
Photo: NOAA
Man’s ingenuity had developed a mechanized system for feeding their population – and it worked well. But it developed some problems both for the system and food production and for the environment as well. In the next few articles, we will look at how we are trying to resolve those problems.
