by Rick O'Connor | Aug 17, 2025
In Part 15 of this series, we mentioned the need to begin seeking new sources of energy. Currently fossils fuels are our go-to source, but this source is limited, and the demand is rising. There are also issues with the waste produced from the drilling, processing, and burning of fossil fuels. Just as we moved from wood to coal, and from coal to oil – we need now to begin looking for what will follow oil. What options do we have?
Drilling platform.
Photo: Florida Museum of Natural History
Is oil still an option?
As most know, crude oil and natural gas are found in pockets beneath the earth’s surface. We extract it by drilling deep wells, using gravity to drive the product towards the well head, and pump it to the surface. At some point in time, usually about a decade, the pressure is lower and the well has reached peak production. At that point we need to drive another well, sometimes in another location. With the demand for this energy source rising, peak production wells are becoming common and new sources of oil are becoming harder to find. The United States is particularly in a situation due the fact we use more oil than any other nation (24% of the world’s oil in 2011). Much of the oil reserves are outside of the U.S. and managed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) – which includes 12 nations. OPEC stated that since 1984 oil production from existing reserves has exceeded the discoveries or new sources – this resource is diminishing. It was predicted in 2011 that by 2025 70% of our oil needs would come from imports. However, there was a decline in imports beginning around 2005 and today 60% of our oil use comes from domestic sources. Here are some advantages and disadvantages of continuing with oil posted in 2011.
| Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Ample supply for 40-100 years |
Need to find substitutes within 50 years |
| Low cost |
Large government subsides |
| Easily transported within and between countries |
Pollutes air when produced and burned |
| Technologies are well developed |
Can cause water pollution as well |
Is natural gas an option?
Much of the natural gas reserves (27%) are found in Russia. Other leading producers include Iran and Qatar – the U.S. only produces 3%. This fossil fuel can be used to power factories, cook and heat homes, and power transportation. Though extracting and burning natural gas produces greenhouse gases, it is less than coal and oil. It can be transported across oceans if liquified.
| Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Ample supplies |
Releases CO2 when burned |
| High net energy yield |
Government subsides |
| Low cost |
Methane can leak from pipelines |
| Less air pollution than other fossil fuels |
Difficult to transfer from one country to another |
Is coal still an option?
In 2011 about 40% of the world’s electricity was generated by coal fired power plants. There has been a decline over the last decade, with a particular drop during the pandemic, but it has seemed to have rebounded some since with an current estimated of about 33% of the world’s electricity being produced by coal. Due to the pollution issues many nations have already begun to turn away from coal. According to the International Energy Agency, China is currently burning three times more coal than all other countries combined. However, this is expected to plateau by 2027. It is the world’s most abundant fossil fuel source. The US Geological Survey estimated in 2011 that coal could last between 214 and 1,125 years. Today the current reserves in the US could last another 422 years. The pollution issue is not only carbon dioxide but sulfur dioxide and trace amounts of mercury, and radioactive materials – it is the “dirtiest” fuel.
| Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Ample supplies |
Severe land disturbance, air pollution, and water pollution |
| High net energy yield |
Soot is a human health risk |
| Low cost |
Large government subsides |
| Well-developed technology |
High CO2 emissions when produced and burned |
Is nuclear energy an option?
For the purpose of boiling water to produce steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity, nuclear power plants are quite complex and expensive. The fuel is mined uranium which is enriched from 0.7% fissionable uranium-235 to about 3%. It is made into pellets. These pellets are about the size of a pencil eraser and each pellet contains the energy equivalent to a ton of coal. These pellets are placed into pipes called fuel rods. The rods are moved in and out of the reactor to control the reaction and avoid a meltdown which could release large amounts of radioactive material. The system is cooled by water. This system is encased in a thick concrete structure called a containment shell to avoid the accidental release of radioactive material. About once a year the spent fuel rods are removed, placed in holding tanks, and transported to an underground holding facility for long term storage – between 10,000 and 240,000 years. However, after 60 years of using this form of energy – no country has developed such a storage facility, and the spent rods are currently stored on site.
In the 1950s researchers predicted that by the year 2000 at least 1,800 nuclear plants would supply 21% of the world’s energy. In 2011, after large investments and government subsidies, there were 439 commercial power plants in 30 countries producing only 6% of the world’s energy. That number has not changed. Reasons for the decline include construction costs, operating costs, low net energy yield, public safety concerns, and increased safety regulations.
| Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Ample supply of fuel |
Cannot compete economically without government subsides |
| Low environmental impact (without accidents) |
Low net energy yield |
| Moderate land use |
Risk of catastrophic accidents |
| Low risk of accidents due to large number of safety systems |
Long term storage problem |
|
Subject to terrorist attacks |
|
Spread knowledge and technology for building nuclear weapons |
Listed above are the advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuel and nuclear energy – systems we have been using for a while. With the concern of climate change, and other environmental risks, humans have begun looking at other energy sources. In the next article we will look at those. Either way – we still need the energy.
References
Coal. The International Energy Agency. https://www.iea.org/energy-system/fossil-fuels/coal.
Coal Explained. How Much Coal Is Left? U.S. Energy Information Agency. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/how-much-coal-is-left.php.
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Thomas Derbes II | Aug 17, 2025
While aquaculture is gradually gaining traction in the United States, it’s important to note that this approach to farming has a long and established history in many parts of the world, particularly in Asia. Asia accounts for over 90% of global aquaculture production, with China, India, and Indonesia leading the sector. The most commonly cultivated species in Asia include carp, shrimp/prawns, and tilapia.
Koi Farming in Japan – Dexter’s World
In the United States, the Southern* states are at the forefront of aquaculture, contributing over 50% of the nation’s total domestic aquacultured species and generating $850 million in annual sales. From Louisiana’s renowned crawfish industry to the burgeoning oyster industry in the Atlantic and Gulf states, and the established catfish industry in Mississippi, Alabama, and Arkansas, the Southern states produce some of the most well-known aquacultured seafood. Farmed oysters from the South are commonly found in markets from New York to California, and Louisiana’s crawfish industry supplies much of America’s crawfish boils.
Several universities in the region are at the cutting edge of aquaculture research. Institutions like Auburn University, the University of Florida, Florida State University, Louisiana State University, the University of Southern Mississippi, Mississippi State University, and the University of Georgia are dedicated to developing the best growing techniques and finding solutions to animal health issues. Aquaculture is a rapidly evolving industry, with advancements in husbandry practices and disease resistance occurring daily.
Fresh Farmed Shrimp – Auburn University
In this series, we aim to explore aquaculture in the Southern states comprehensively, breaking down the information by state and, eventually, by species. We hope this series will illuminate the world of aquaculture in America and inspire readers to try some delicious aquacultured seafood.
In Part 2 of our series, we will delve into the aquaculture profiles of Alabama and Arkansas!
* – Southern States for our discussion include Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas
| States |
# of Farms |
% South |
% USA |
Sales (x $1,000) |
% South |
% USA |
| Alabama |
102 |
6% |
3% |
131,906 |
14% |
7% |
| Arkansas |
55 |
3% |
2% |
84,172 |
9% |
4% |
| Florida |
488 |
27% |
14% |
165,940 |
17% |
9% |
| Georgia |
22 |
1% |
1% |
0* |
0% |
0% |
| Louisiana |
818 |
45% |
24% |
195,244 |
21% |
10% |
| Mississippi |
129 |
7% |
4% |
276,950 |
29% |
15% |
| North Carolina |
95 |
5% |
3% |
33,225 |
3% |
2% |
| South Carolina |
25 |
1% |
1% |
6,961 |
1% |
0% |
| Tennessee |
21 |
1% |
1% |
3,990 |
0% |
0% |
| Texas |
75 |
4% |
2% |
53,914 |
6% |
3% |
| Total South |
1830 |
|
|
952,302 |
|
|
| Total US |
3453 |
|
|
1,908,022 |
|
|
| The Percentage the South Accounts For in US |
53% |
|
|
50% |
|
|
*withheld to avoid disclosing data for individual farms
Resources:
2023 Census of Aquaculture
USDA Economic Resource Division: Aquaculture
Marine Aquaculture in NOAA Fisheries’ Southeast Region
by Rick O'Connor | Jul 19, 2025
We stated in the last article that we have plenty of water on our planet; we just do not manage it well. So, what are some ways to do this? Below we will review some ideas provided by Miller and Spoolman back in 2011 and we will add a few more.
Is Extracting More Groundwater the Answer?
Groundwater that is used to supply cities and grow food is being pumped from aquifers in some areas faster than it is renewed by precipitation. Some advantages of this method include the water is useful for drinking and irrigation, its available year-round, and there is no evaporation loss. The disadvantages include it is being depleted, sinking of land (subsidence) occurs from over pumping, some aquifers have been polluted by deep well injection of waste. The largest aquifer in the world is the Ogallala Aquifer found beneath South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. It is showing signs of severe overdraft particularly near Texas and New Mexico. Methods of managing this water source would include wasting less water, restricting the number of wells allowed, planting crops and landscapes that require less water.
This is a common method used to irrigate crops across the U.S.
Photo: UF IFAS
Is Building More Dams the Answer?
Building dam and reservoir systems has greatly increased water supplies in some areas, but it has disrupted ecosystems (causing other financial losses) and displaced people. Some positive aspects of creating reservoirs are creating a large source of water, recreational uses in these new lakes, and the dams produce low-cost electricity. But the negatives include the new lakes that flood cropland and displace people, evaporation loss of this needed resource is very high, disrupts the migration and spawning of many species of fish (some of which are economically valuable). With some current dam systems, the rivers are running dry downstream, and the lakes are shrinking. We saw this firsthand at the Glen Canyon Dam on the Colorado River in Arizona.
Glen Canyon at the Utah/Arizona border.
Photo: NOAA
Is Transferring Water from One Place to Another the Answer?
Transferring water from one place to another has greatly increased supplies in some areas, but it has also disrupted ecosystems and commercial ventures in others. One place this has been used is the California Water Project – where water from wooded northern California has been piped to the deserts of southern California. For decades battles have been fought as to how much of this water should be sent south. Southern California uses this water in large agriculture projects and for large cities like Los Angeles and San Diego. 75% of this water is used in agriculture – but often for water thirsty crops like rice and alfalfa being grown in desert conditions. Northern California contends that these water transfers reduce the ability to flush pollutants from San Fransico Bay and has reduced important fisheries. They argue that southern California could help by using better irrigation methods and crop selection. Several studies suggest that climate change will reduce the amount of water currently available in this system and they are already over pumping their ground water. In 2011 China was planning a similar project moving water from southern part of the country to the north. But will this solve our water management problems?
Is Desalination of Seawater the Answer?
There is certainly plenty of seawater – and we know how to convert seawater to freshwater – but the cost is high, and the resulting salty brine must be disposed of without harming aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems. In 2004 there were about 15,000 desalination plants around the world – that number has not increased much over the last 20 years. Most were in the Middle East. Saudi Arabia had the largest number, followed by the U.S. Almost 50% of Isarel’s water was produced from desalination. In addition to high cost and issues with what to do with the brine produced, there is the problem of adding chemicals to this water as it is being piped to reduce algae. This chemical treatment has been shown to cause severe problems for natural ecosystems.
So, How Can We Use Water More Sustainably?
We can do so by reducing water waste, raising the price of water, slowing population growth, and protecting our aquifers and habitats that store and release water.
We can reduce irrigation waste by…
- Line irrigation canals
- Irrigate at night to reduce evaporation
- Monitor soil and irrigate only when needed
- Avoid growing water thirsty crops
- Irrigate with treated urban wastewater.
We can reduce water waste by…
- Redesign manufacturing systems so they use less water
- Recycle industrial water
- Landscape our yards with plants that require little or no water
- Use drip irrigation
- Raise water prices
- Use water saving toilets, showerheads, and front-loading clothes washers
- Collect and reuse household water for irrigation of nonedible plants.
How Can We Reduce the Threat of Flooding?
We can lessen the threat of flooding by protecting more wetlands and natural vegetation in watersheds and not building in areas subject to frequent flooding. You may have noticed with the recent building trends in the Florida panhandle, this is not being considered – but should.
Other ideas in conserving and reducing problems with water management include green roofs and Florida Friendly Landscaping. You can learn more about how to protect your water resources by visiting your local county extension office.
Reference
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Rick O'Connor | Jul 7, 2025
I read a story about a group of fishermen from Central America who went to sea one day only to have their boat brake down. As they drifted in the current, they immediately went into survival mode rationing the food they had. As their food reserves became low, they would supplement with catching fish – they were fishermen. At one point they ran out of cooking fuel and so began to dismantle parts of the wooden vessel to burn for cooking. There was a point where there was no food for the day. They would go for several days without food, catching fish when they could, seabirds when they landed on the boat, and the occasional sea turtle would hold them for a while. Though they may not have been in shape to play tennis – they were alive and hoping to cross paths with an ocean tanker.
Then they drifted out of the rain belt. They had been collecting rainwater all this time but had entered a portion of the ocean where it did not rain. This changed everything. Though they could go a month without food – one source indicates you can go up to 50 days, and some up to 70 days – you can only go three days without water. The fishermen seemed to understand this. Within a couple of days, they all laid on the bow of the boat awaiting death – they knew this was the end. As luck would have it, a ship did come by and rescued all five. But it shows us the importance of water. Though we sometimes debate which resources are truly needed by humans, we must have water.
The Gulf of Mexico as seen from Pensacola Beach.
Photo: Molly O’Connor
Lucky for us we live on a planet whose surface is covered with it. Jacques Cousteau once said that the planet should have been called “aqua” for there is so little land in comparison – 70% is covered in water. But, as you know, most of the water within the hydrosphere is salt water, and this will not help. The kidneys make urine from water less salty than seawater. So, if you drink seawater, you will urinate more water than you take in and you will die of dehydration.
Only 3% of the water within the hydrosphere is freshwater and 68.7% of that is frozen in glaciers and ice caps, 31% is found as ground water, and less than 1% is found in rivers, lakes, and streams. Though we live on a planet covered in water, very little of it is in a usable form.
This drop represents the total amount of freshwater on the planet. The smaller drop represents freshwater available for use.
Image: U.S. Geological Survey
Humans get their needed water from ground water (aquifers) and surface water (rivers and lakes) sources. With the growing human population, we are overdrawing from both sources. I saw this firsthand while camping in Arizona. There is a place on Lake Powell called Lone Rock. You can drive to the shoreline and camp at the edge of the lake. The first year we camped there we did just that. We drove to a point where there was a slight drop from our spot to the shore of the lake. We came back to this location two years later – went to the same spot where we had camped before – and it had changed drastically. Now from this spot the slight drop was between 20-30 feet – but not to the shoreline – but rather to a hard sand terrace. This terrace extended about 100 yards toward the lake before it dropped another 20-30 feet to the shoreline. It was amazing. The first year we were there we paddled to Lone Rock (in the middle of the lake). Now you could almost walk to it. A local told me he had lived there for 18 years and had never seen it this low.
Lake Powell is the second largest reservoir in the United States. It was created by placing a damn on the Colorado River to create a water source for the people in that area. The drastic loss of water can be explained in two ways. One – a growing human population in an area with little water to begin with, and an increase withdraw of this resource. Two – reduction in rainfall due to climate change. The American southwest does not get a lot of rainfall to begin with. We explained this natural process in our fourth article in this series – Life on Land. Miller and Spoolman note in 2011 that the American southwest receives an average of 16 inches of rain a year. Despite being an arid area there are several major cities – Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Phoenix – with millions of residents who need water. Add to this the large agriculture operations who need water for their crops. Most of their water needs are met by rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains heading to the sea. These rivers are damned to create reservoirs and the “water grab” begins. Arguments over who should get this water – farmers, residents, entertainment in Vegas – are common. The Water Wars have begun. The population continues to grow, and climate continues to change.
In the American southeast it is different. We average 48 inches of rain a year. Our area of the northern Gulf coast is even wetter. Most think of Seattle as the area with the highest rainfall in the country but in fact the three wettest cities in the U.S. in order are Mobile AL, Pensacola FL, and New Orleans LA. Pensacola historically gets around 60 inches of rain a year. But between 2010 and 2020 the average here increased to 70 inches. The climate models predict that the dry areas of the country will become drier, and the wet areas will become wetter. This certainly seems to be happening. So, locally, the issues are not drought and loss – but flooding.
The amazing thing about this is that in an area where there seems to be plenty of water, we are seeing water deficits. The large amount of precipitation is not recharging the Floridan aquifer (the source of much of our water) but rather falling on impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots, buildings). This water then causes flooding issues and our answer to this is to drain that rainwater into local surface waters and into the Gulf – not recharging the aquifer. As strange as it sounds – we are hearing about Water Wars even here. It is not that we do not have enough water – it is we do not manage it well.
In the next article we will discuss some suggestions on how we might better manage our very much needed water resources.
References
How Long Can You Go Without Food? Verywell Health. https://www.verywellhealth.com/how-long-live-without-food-1132033#:~:text=How%20long%20human%20beings%20can,someone%20can%20live%20without%20food.
Hospice No Food or Water. Oasis Hospice and Palliative Care. https://oasishospice.us/2022/05/17/hospice-no-food-or-water/.
Can Humans Drink Seawater? National Ocean Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/drinksw.html.
Where is the Earth’s Water? GRACE: Tracking Water from Space. American Museum of Natural History. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.amnh.org/content/download/154153/2561707/file/grace-passage-1-student-version.pdf.
Miller, G.T., Spoolman, S.E. 2011. Living in the Environment. Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. Belmont CA. pp. 674.
by Laura Tiu | Jun 6, 2025
The colonial Portuguese man-of-war.
Photo: NOAA
I love summer; going to the beach, snorkeling, kayaking and grilling in the backyard. But summer comes with its own share of challenges. One of my least favorite summer guests is bugs. The list of bugs I dislike is long, but I’d like to focus on a few that like to torment us all.
Mosquitos are one of summer’s bad actors. Mosquito lay their eggs and their larvae mature in both manmade and natural water-holding containers such as bird baths, plants, bucket, used tire and holes in trees. Some mosquitos just bite while others carry disease. The easiest way to get rid of mosquitos is to get rid of any water-holding containers in the area.
Ants, in particular fire ants, are another unwelcome summer arrival. This invasive species is aggressive, and their painful stings can injure both humans and animals. Fire ant nests look like large mounds of dirt and typically have multiple openings. You must kill the queen to completely eliminate a colony. Even if the queen is killed, surviving ants may inhabit the mound or make a new mound until they die off. Some treatments that may work to get rid of these pests include baits, pesticides and boiling water.
Many biting flies, yellow flies are my least favorite, persistently attack man and animals to obtain a blood meal. Like mosquitoes, it is the female fly that is responsible for inflicting a bite. These biting flies like shady areas under bushes and trees and wait for their victim to pass by. They typically attack during daylight hours, a few hours after sunrise and two hours before sunset. Currently there are no adequate means for managing populations. Traps are sometimes effective in small areas such as yards, camping sites, and swimming pools.
In the water, jellyfish are the most common summer pest. While not bugs, their reputation for stinging people puts them in a similar category with the above-mentioned pests. Sea lice, actually the larval form of the thimble jellyfish, is a common near shore pest, while Portuguese Man-O-War and the box jellyfish can give a very painful sting. Another type, comb jellies, are not true jellyfish and do not sting. I you get stung, rinse the sting site with large amounts of household vinegar, or jelly-fish-free ocean water, for at least 30 seconds. Do not rub sand or apply any pressure to the area or scrape the sting site.
The University of Florida – IFAS has several good publications with information about these pests and more detail on how to manage them. Check out these publications if you, like me, have had your fill of summer pests.
Florida Container Mosquitos: https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN1315
Ant Control – https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/lawn-and-garden/sustainable-fire-ant-control/
Yellow Flies – https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN595
Jellyfish – http://nwdistrict.ifas.ufl.edu/nat/tag/jellyfish/
